Group IVA functionalized particles and methods of use thereof

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are functionalized Group IVA particles, methods of preparing the Group IVA particles, and methods of using the Group IVA particles. The Group IVA particles may be passivated with at least one layer of material covering at least a portion of the particle. The layer of material may be a covalently bonded non-dielectric layer of material. The Group IVA particles may be used in various technologies, including lithium ion batteries and photovoltaic cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a non-provisional of U.S. Patent Application No. 61/691,641, filed on Aug. 21, 2012, and U.S. Patent Application No. 61/773,270, filed on Mar. 6, 2013, the contents of all of which are incorporated fully herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to functionalized Group IVA particles, and more particularly, to Group IVA particles passivated by a covalently bonded non-dielectric layer of hydrocarbons, methods of preparing the Group IVA particles, and methods of using the Group IVA particles. The present disclosure also relates to the incorporation of porous covalent frameworks with covalently bound Group IVA particles, and methods of using the porous covalent frameworks in battery technologies.

BACKGROUND

A battery is an electrochemical energy storage device. Batteries can be categorized as either primary (non-rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable). In either case, a fully charged battery delivers electrical power as it undergoes an oxidation/reduction process and electrons are allowed to flow between the negative and positive polls of the battery.

Lithium ion batteries are secondary batteries; which means that they can be recharged by driving current in the opposite direction and reducing lithium ions to Li⁰ at the anode. A generalized schematic representation of a lithium ion battery is shown in FIG. 1. The direction of movement of ions and electrons are shown to represent “charging”. The discharge cycle would show ions moving in the opposite direction. Lithium ions migrating into the anode are met by electrons moving toward the anode through the closed circuit, thus reducing the Li⁺ to Li⁰ (lithium metal). Li⁰ is actually much larger in diameter than Li⁺ because of the electron it acquired occupies its 2S orbital. Consequently lithium metal occupies a significant amount of space. Conventional carbon anodes accommodate reduced lithium between the layers of graphite. Graphite can be thought of as 2-D arrays of 6-membered rings of carbon forming “sheets” that slide easily on one another. Fully charged, a graphite anode is able to accommodate the volume of lithium without imposing special demands beyond the inherent space that already exists between the sheets of graphite sheets.

There are no such special demands on the cathode as Li⁺ requires very little space (like adding sand to a bucket of gravel). The metal oxides and/or phosphates comprising the cathode stay in place. But only a finite number of Li⁺ ions (usually one or two) can pair with each cluster of metal oxides. Thus much greater space requirement of the cathode limits the specific charge capacity (charge per gram or charge per cubic millimeter). From the standpoint of size and molecular mass alone, lithium is the ideal element to use in batteries that must be made compact and light. In addition, lithium has the highest redox potential difference of any element.

The average cathode composition generally has lower charge capacity and therefore requires more size (and weight) when matched with the most common anode composite, graphite. As a consequence, a majority of research has focused on developing improved cathodes.

Some researchers have sought to develop alternative anodes for lithium ion batteries using silicon based materials. Silicon (Si) is known to have a far superior capacity to attract lithium than carbon used in traditional batteries [372 milliamp hours per gram, (mAh/g) versus 4,212 mAh/g for Si]. However, no commercial batteries have been successfully introduced using Si because no suitable structure has been found that prevents mechanical breakdown of the Si composites after only a few recharge cycles. Specifically, the limited structural form of silicon, coupled with the strong attraction that lithium has for silicon, results in mechanical failure due to volumetric expansion after a few charge/recharge cycles.

Accordingly, there is a need for new materials and methods that improve upon existing battery technology. In particular, there is a need for materials that provide a suitable porous framework to accommodate the spatial requirements of lithium accumulation at the anode of lithium ion batteries, and also possess good charge carrier mobility.

Also needed are nanoparticle materials that can be efficiently and economically produced from abundant and readily available raw materials. While particle size control has been demonstrated using such methodologies as plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), hot wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD) and ion beam deposition (IBD), commercial production using these methods usually involve in situ film manufacturing. Group IVA nanoparticle powders are only available commercially in very limited range of specifications and only with dielectric passivation. The products are expensive because their production requires large capital costs for production equipment and high energy costs in production.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, disclosed is a functionalized Group IVA particle. The Group IVA particle may be passivated by a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.

The non-dielectric layer may be derived from a compound selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes. The non-dielectric layer may be derived from a compound selected from the group consisting toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde. The non-dielectric layer may possess functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is 25 microns in size or less, 1 micron in size or less, 0.1 micron in size or less, or 0.05 micron in size or less.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework. The porous covalent framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 2-dimensional framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 3-dimensional framework.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle comprises silicon, germanium, tin, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an n-type dopant or a p-type dopant. The n-type dopant may comprise nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic, or any combination thereof. The p-type dopant may comprise boron, aluminum, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be derived from metallurgical grade silicon. The Group IVA particle may be derived from a p-type silicon wafer, wherein the p-type silicon wafer may have a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm². The Group IVA particle may be derived from an n-type silicon wafer. The Group IVA particle may be derived from bulk MG Group IVA ingot material.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be part of an anode in a lithium ion battery, part of a photovoltaic (PV) film, part of a biosensor, part of an energy storage device, part of a thermoelectric film, or part of a semiconductor device.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be prepared by a process comprising the steps of: treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be prepared by a process comprising the steps of: treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particle may be a particle passivated with a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particle may be stable to oxidation in air at room temperature. The compound for passivating may be selected from the group consisting of an organic compound, a fullerene, and an organometallic compound.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.

In another aspect, disclosed are methods of preparing functionalized Group IVA particles.

In certain embodiments, a method of functionalizing a Group IVA particle comprises treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, a method of functionalizing a Group IVA particle comprises treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a stable benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. The passivated Group IVA particles may be stable to oxidation in air at room temperature. The passivated Group IVA particles may be passivated with a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.

In certain embodiments, the compound used for passivation may be selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes. In certain embodiments, the compound used for passivation may be selected from the group consisting toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde.

In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is 25 microns in size or less, 1 micron in size or less, 0.1 micron in size or less, or 0.05 micron in size or less.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework. The porous covalent framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 2-dimensional framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 3-dimensional framework.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle comprises silicon, germanium, tin, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an n-type dopant or a p-type dopant. The n-type dopant may comprise nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic, or any combination thereof. The p-type dopant may comprise boron, aluminum, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be part of an anode in a lithium ion battery, part of a sorbent for capturing mercury from a combustion gas, part of a photovoltaic (PV) film, part of a biosensor, part of an energy storage device, part of a thermoelectric film, or part of a semiconductor device.

In certain embodiments, the protic acid may be selected from the group consisting of nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and hydrobromic acid.

In certain embodiments, the synthetic steps to prepare the passivated Group IVA particles are conducted at about room temperature.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be derived from metallurgical grade silicon. The Group IVA particle may be derived from a p-type silicon wafer, wherein the p-type silicon wafer may have a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm². The Group IVA particle may be derived from an n-type silicon wafer. The Group IVA particle may be derived from bulk MG Group IVA ingot material.

In certain embodiments, prior to treating the Group IVA particle with protic acid, the method comprises crushing, grinding, and milling an ingot or wafer material comprising a Group IVA element to provide submicron Group IVA particles ready for passivation.

In certain embodiments, the methods of preparing the Group IVA particles are a non-clean room processes.

In another aspect, disclosed is a lithium ion battery comprising: a positive electrode; a negative electrode comprising a conductive, porous covalent framework comprising at least one submicron Group IVA particle covalently bonded to the framework; a lithium ion permeable separator between the positive electrode and the negative electrode; and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions. The porous covalent framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 2-dimensional framework or a 3-dimensional framework. In certain embodiments, the lithium ion battery includes a solvent that is a mixture of at least ethylene and propylene carbonates.

The compositions, methods and processes are further described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a generalized schematic representation of a lithium ion battery.

FIG. 2 depicts Group IVA nanoparticles functionalized with 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyl-anthracene groups.

FIG. 3 depicts a porous framework composite including functionalized Group IVA particles.

FIG. 4 depicts a lithium ion battery using a silicon-covalent porous framework anode.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic cell including a semiconductor film incorporating functionalized Group IVA particles.

FIG. 6 depicts an Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrum showing resolved K-alpha signals that include Si, O, and C.

FIG. 7 depicts an Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrum of benzene functionalized nc-Si (ca. 300 nm) following removal of excess benzene.

FIG. 8 depicts a SEM image of nc-Si particles functionalized with benzene.

FIG. 9 depicts a FTIR spectrum of nc-Si particles functionalized with benzene.

FIG. 10a depicts a TGA scan of benzene passivated nc-Si (estimated APS ˜300 nm or less) at 30° C./min.

FIG. 10b depicts a TGA scan of benzene passivated nc-Si (estimated APS ˜300 nm or less) at 10° C./min.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are micron and submicron sized, passivated Group IVA particles; methods of preparing the Group IVA particles; and methods of using the Group IVA particles. The Group IVA particles, the methods of preparing said particles, and methods of using said particles, as disclosed herein, provide several advantages over current technologies and practices.

As one advantage, the Group IVA particles may be efficiently and economically produced from readily available starting materials. For example, the Group IVA particles can be made and functionalized without the use of heat or other high energy processes, thereby lowering manufacturing costs. The process for manufacturing nanosized Group IVA particles by methods disclosed herein are far more economical than manufacturing of Group IVA nanoparticles from “atom up” methods, such as plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), hot wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD), and ion beam deposition (IBD). Furthermore, the availability of feedstock for manufacturing the Group IVA submicron particles is plentiful and economical, as there are many sources of silicon and germanium derived from metallurgical grade ingots to various refined stage ingots. For silicon, the bulk material ranges from amorphous to polycrystalline and crystalline. Purities range from about 95% pure to 99.9999% pure. Silicon and germanium are available with dopants added that render the semiconductor properties as n-type (B, or Al) or p-type (N, P, or As). Of the refined crystalline and polycrystalline bulk materials, wafers from ingots with specific resistivity are available for use in semiconductor microelectronics manufacturing and solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing. Kerf from wafer manufacturing and scrap or defective wafers are also available at recycled material prices.

As another advantage, the ability to handle and store the Group IVA particles disclosed herein without rigorous exclusion of air and moisture is a distinct advantage, particularly in device manufacturing. Unlike most semiconductor devices where semiconducting films are manufactured in situ with strict controls to exclude oxygen and moisture, the Group IVA submicron particles disclosed herein may be manufactured separately from the device and can be stored in dry powdered form for up to several months without decomposition.

Thus, the methods disclosed herein allow functionalization of Group IVA materials for any application on any substrate/carrier that would otherwise require heat, sintering, environmentally controlled clean rooms and environmentally unfriendly etching, and substrates that would stand up to the heat processing, etc. Existing methods can be used only in applications or on substrates that will support the status quo heat and clean room based method to bond materials together and to the substrate or carrier.

As another advantage, the Group IVA particles and methods disclosed herein may be applied in technologies in such a way as to overcome existing problems in the art. The capability of forming formal covalent bonds to surrounding media from the passivated submicron particles through low-energy reactions allows the formation of materials that have optimized charge mobility from the particle to the surrounding media. As such, the Group IVA particles have applications in lithium ion battery and photovoltaic technologies.

For example, the Group IVA particles may be incorporated into a porous covalent framework to provide a composite for use in anodes of lithium ion batteries, functioning as high capacity anodes having high charge mobility. The composite can provide optimum porosity, allowing ion flow in all directions, thereby reducing internal resistance that can lead to the generation of heat. The composite can accommodate space requirements for lithium at the anode, and resist mechanical breakdown as compared to known silicon based composites. The composite can also provide conduits for electrical charge mobility to and from sites where lithium ions (Li⁺) become reduced to lithium metal)(Li⁰), and the reverse process in which Li⁰ atoms become oxidized to Li⁺. The facile electron mobility may be beneficial also in suppressing the formation of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) films believed to form from solvent decomposition as a consequence of localized electrical potentials. The composite, which conducts charge efficiently, can provide increased recharge rate, decreasing the time required to recharge the battery.

1. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. In case of conflict, the present document, including definitions, will control. Preferred methods and materials are described below, although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in practice or testing of the present invention. All publications, patent applications, patents and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. The materials, methods, and examples disclosed herein are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The terms “comprise(s),” “include(s),” “having,” “has,” “can,” “contain(s),” and variants thereof, as used herein, are intended to be open-ended transitional phrases, terms, or words that do not preclude the possibility of additional acts or structures. The present disclosure also contemplates other embodiments “comprising,” “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of,” the embodiments or elements presented herein, whether explicitly set forth or not.

2. GROUP IVA PARTICLES

Disclosed herein are Group IVA particles passivated with at least one layer of material covering at least a portion of the particle. The particles include at least one Group IVA element (e.g., silicon, germanium, or tin). The layer of material may be a covalently bonded non-dielectric layer of material, such as a hydrocarbon.

The Group IVA particles may be micron or submicron sized particles. The particles may have a diameter of less than 25 microns, less than 20 microns, less than 15 microns, less 10 microns, less than 5 microns, less than 1 micron, less than 0.5 micron, less than 0.1 micron, or less than 0.05 micron. The particles may have a diameter ranging from about 0.05 micron to about 25 microns, or from about 0.1 micron to about 1 micron. The particles may have a diameter of 0.01 micron, 0.02 micron, 0.03 micron, 0.04 micron, 0.05 micron, 0.06 micron, 0.07 micron, 0.08 micron, 0.09 micron, 0.10 micron, 0.2 micron, 0.3 micron, 0.4 micron, 0.5 micron, 0.6 micron, 0.7 micron, 0.8 micron, 0.9 micron, or 1 micron. The particles produced by the processes disclosed herein may produce particles of uniform diameter, or may produce particles of variable diameter.

a. Group IVA Elements and Materials

The Group IVA particles may include elemental silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) or tin (Sn), in their elemental form, or available in a wide range of purities. Impurities may be naturally occurring impurities that occur in metallurgical grade (MG) bulk materials, or may be intentionally added dopants to render the semiconducting properties of the Group IVA materials as n-type or p-type. For silicon, the metallurgical grade bulk material may range from amorphous to polycrystalline and crystalline; and purities may range from about 95% pure to 99.9999% pure. Dopants that render Group IVA materials as p-type semiconductors are typically from Group IIIA elements, such as boron (B) or aluminum (Al). Dopants that render Group IVA semiconductors as n-type are typically from Group VA elements, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) or arsenic (As). Naturally occurring impurities in metallurgical grade Si typically include metallic elements in the form of metal oxides, sulfides and silicides. The major metallic elements include Al, iron (Fe), calcium (Ca) and titanium (Ti), but other elements can be observed in trace quantities.

The Group IVA particles may be derived from a variety of feedstocks. In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particles may be derived from wafers, such as silicon wafers. Of the refined crystalline and polycrystalline bulk materials, wafers from ingots with specific resistivity are available from semiconductor microelectronics manufacturing and solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing. Kerf from wafer manufacturing and scrap, or defective wafers are also available at recycled material prices.

b. Materials for Passivation

The Group IVA particles may be passivated with a variety of compounds. The compound may be an organic compound, such as a hydrocarbon based organic compound. In certain embodiments, the compound may be selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes. In certain embodiments, the compound may be selected from the group consisting of toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary C₁-C₆ alkene, a primary C₁-C₆ alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetraanthracene.

Hydrocarbons chosen for passivation may bear other functional groups that upon activation will form covalent bonds with other reagents. This property provides a basis for covalently linking the Group IVA particles as structural units in building reticular covalent networks. Hydrocarbons chosen for passivation can vary in size and polarity. Both size and polarity can be exploited for targeted particle size selectivity by solubility limits in particular solvents. Partitioning of particle size distributions based on solubility limits is one tactic for narrowing of particle size distributions in commercial scale processes.

While the possibilities of structure and function for Group IVA submicron particles made by the methods disclosed herein are unlimited, the following embodiments are given as examples to demonstrate the range of flexibility for building functional particles through low energy reactions conducted at or near room temperature.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with toluene.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with benzene. A benzene passivated Group IVA particle may serve as a stable intermediate for further modification. Benzene is one of few organic hydrocarbons that will bond reversibly to silicon surfaces. Thus, benzene passivated Group IVA material is a convenient stable intermediate for introducing other functional hydrocarbons to the particle surface. This is one of few forms of Group IVA material in which thermodynamics plays an important role in the surface chemistry as opposed to be being dominated by kinetics.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with an aromatic hydrocarbon, such as a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. Aromatic hydrocarbons provide for charge mobility across the passivated particle surface. Hydrocarbons with extended pi systems through which charge can travel may be preferred in certain embodiments for non-dielectric passivation of Group IVA material surfaces.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a carbon nanotube, a fullerene, or a metallofullerene. Such materials may be applied to the particle surfaces either directly to H₂ passivated surfaces, or by replacement of benzene passivated surfaces. Fullerenes have a very high capacity to disperse electric charge and may impart properties useful in microelectronic applications.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with styrene. Such materials may be applied directly to H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces. Styrene is known to bond primarily through the pendant vinyl group, leaving the aromatic ring unchanged and free to interact with surrounding solvents, electrolytes, or to be modified by aromatic ring substitution reactions. Functional groups on the phenyl ring may be used as a reactive precursor for forming covalent bonds to a surrounding framework.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with cyclooctatetraene (COT). Such a material may be applied to H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces, with alternating carbon atoms formally bonded to the particle surface while the other four carbon atoms not bonded directly to the particle surface are connected by two parallel double bonds, providing a diene site capable of Diels-Alder type reactions.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a norbornadiene reagent. Such materials may be applied to H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces with attachment of one or both double bonds. If both double bonds interact with the particle surface, a strained structure comparable to quadracyclane may result. Norbornadiene/quadracyclane is known to be an energy storage couple that needs a sensitizer (acetophenone) to capture photons. In certain embodiments, silicon or germanium may also function as a sensitizer.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a normal primary alkene or alkyne having 6-12 carbon chain lengths. The alkene or alkyne can be used as the reactive medium for the purpose of attaching hydrocarbons to the surface of the Group IVA particles to increase particle size or to change solubility properties of the particles. The longer alkane chain lengths may garner more intermolecular attraction to solvents, resulting in increased solubility of the particles. Changing the size of Group IVA particles by attaching hydrocarbons may alter photoluminescence properties.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a biologically active reactive media. Such materials can be used to replace H₂ passivated surfaces to synthesize biological markers that respond to photons. Fatty acids may bond to active surfaces through the carboxylate group or through one of the chain's unsaturated bonds. Amino acids are water soluble and may bond either though the primary amine or through the acid end, depending on pH. Similarly, peptides, proteins, enzymes all have particular biological functions that may be linked to Group IVA nanoparticle markers.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA nanoparticles may reside in communication with a porous framework capable of transmitting charge in communication with liquid crystal media having charge conduction properties. Such particles may be used for the purpose of capturing and selectively sequestering chemical components of a complex mixture, as a method of measuring their relative concentrations in the mixture. The method of measurement may be by capture of photons by the semiconductor nanoparticles and measurement of electrical impulses generated from photovoltaic properties of said nanoparticles or by sensing photoluminescence as a result of reemitted photons from the media that has been influenced by the captured chemical components.

In certain embodiments, bifunctional organic chains may be used to replace H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces. For example, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-anthracene has two hydroxyl groups at each end of a fused chain of three aromatic rings. This hydrocarbon chain may be used to build a covalent framework and may be used to link Group IVA nanoparticles to the framework. The chain length structure and functional groups at the ends of the chains can vary. Some functional groups used for cross-linking between building units can include, but are not limited to: aldehydes, carboxylates, esters, borates, amines, amides, vinyl, halides, and any other cross-linking functional group used in polymer chemistry. Frameworks based on covalently linked porphyrin may have extraordinarily high charge (hole conducting) mobility, greater than amorphous silicon and higher than any other known hydrocarbon composite. Si nanoparticles linked covalently to porous covalent frameworks may serve as high capacity electrode composites for lithium-ion batteries. FIG. 2 depicts Group IVA nanoparticles functionalized with 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-anthracene groups.

In certain embodiments, aromatic passivating hydrocarbons may be used to replace H₂ bonded to reactive surfaces of the Group IVA particles. The aromatic hydrocarbons may promote high charge mobility and can interact with other planar pi systems in the media surrounding the particle. This embodiment may be applied to functioning solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. The aromatic hydrocarbons that form the passivating layer on the particle may or may not possess functional groups that form covalent bonds to the particle or the surrounding media. For example, toluene bonds to active surfaces on silicon, effectively passivating the surface and permitting electrical charge to move from photon generated electron hole pairs in p-type crystalline silicon particles. Sustained electrical diode properties have been measured in films made with high K-dielectric solvents and both p-type and n-type silicon particles passivated with toluene.

c. Method of Passivation

The Group IVA particles disclosed herein can be functionalized with at least one layer of material over at least a portion of the particle. The layer of material may be covalently bonded to the Group IVA particle. The layer of material may be a non-dielectric layer of material, such as a hydrocarbon. The passivated Group IVA particle may be stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.

The methods of passivation disclosed herein may be conducted at or near room temperature. The methods allow functionalization of Group IVA materials for any application on any substrate/carrier that would otherwise require heat, sintering, environmentally controlled clean rooms and environmentally unfriendly etching, and substrates that would stand up to the heat processing, etc.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA particles may be prepared by providing a first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle; treating the first particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound (other than hydrogen) to provide a passivated Group IVA particle.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA particles may be prepared by providing a first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle; treating the first particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound (other than hydrogen) to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In cases where it is desirable to replace benzene mono-layers with functional hydrocarbons other than solvents, it may be necessary to stir the benzene passivated particles in a non-functional solvent with the desired functional hydrocarbon dissolved or suspended in it. For example, naphthalene dissolved in hexanes replaces benzene on the surface of Group IVA particles upon stirring at reflux temperature under nitrogen atmosphere.

The first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle may be derived from a variety of feedstocks. In certain embodiments, the first particles may be derived from wafers, such as silicon wafers. Of the refined crystalline and polycrystalline bulk materials, wafers from ingots with specific resistivity are available from semiconductor microelectronics manufacturing and solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing. Kerf from wafer manufacturing and scrap, or defective wafers are available at recycled material prices.

The first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle may be prepared from feedstocks by any suitable process. In certain embodiments, the first Group IVA particle may be prepared from bulk Group IVA materials by comminution processes known in the art. Particle size ranges obtainable from comminution of bulk Group IVA materials has improved with the development of new milling technologies in recent years. Using milling techniques such as high energy ball milling (HEBM), fluidized bed bead mills, and steam jet milling, nanoparticle size ranges may be obtained. Bulk materials are available commercially in a wide range of specifications with narrow ranges of measured electrical resistivity and known dopant concentrations, and can be selected for milling. Other embodiments can be created to produce micron- to nanoparticles using n-type Group IVA wafers, or wafers with higher or lower resistivity or bulk MG Group IVA ingot material following a similar procedure as above.

Any protic acid may be used to provide the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the protic acid is a strong protic acid. In certain embodiments, the protic acid is selected from the group consisting of nitric acid (HNO₃), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), and hydrobromic acid (HBr). The protic acid may function to passivate the first Group IVA particle by leaching metal element impurities from the particles, which forms soluble metal chloride salts and gaseous hydrogen (H₂), such that the remaining surface (e.g., Si surface) from which impurities have been leached become weakly passivated with hydrogen.

Hydrogen can then be replaced from the Group IVA particles with a selected compound. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particles may be treated with certain functional organic materials (e.g., hydrocarbons) that form strong covalent bonds with Group IVA element. Examples of functional groups that form bonds with Group IVA surfaces (e.g., Si surfaces) include, but are not limited to, alkenes, alkynes, phenyl (or any aromatic cyclic organic compounds), alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, aldehydes, and other functional groups able to share electrons through pi bonds or lone pair electrons.

In certain embodiments, following the above sequence of treatments, silicon particles made from impure grades of bulk Si may have irregular shapes, but include a monolayer of hydrocarbons on Si surfaces that have been freshly exposed by leaching gettered impurities or by fracturing during a milling process. Hydrocarbons can be chosen to replace hydrogen bonding to the Si surface that allow a high degree of charge mobility, thus rendering the Si surface effectively non-dielectric. Further reaction of the Si surface with oxygen leading to SiO₂ formation may be inhibited by the presence of the hydrocarbon monolayer. Even if areas of the nanoparticle surface are not completely free of dielectric oxides, charge mobility from the nanoparticle to a surrounding framework, or vice versa, may still occur through the non-dielectric passivated areas on the surfaces.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA particles may be prepared by providing a Group IVA powder; reducing the Group IVA powder to submicron particles; within a closed container treating at least a portion of the submicron particles with an aqueous liquid comprising a protic acid; agitating the container for a time sufficient to passivate the submicron particles therein with hydrogen; separating at least a portion of the aqueous liquid from the hydrogen passivated submicron particles; and within a closed container treating the hydrogen passivated submicron particles with a compound (other than hydrogen) to provide passivated Group IVA particles.

The Group IVA powder may be provided by using a mortar and pestle to crush a material comprising Group IVA elements (e.g., silicon wafers), and passing the crushed material through a sieve. The powder may be reduced to submicron particles using a ball mill. In an exemplary embodiment, the powder may be reduced to submicron particles by a Netzsch Dynostar mill using 0.4-0.6 mm yttrium-stabilized zirconia beads. Further processing to smaller average particle size (APS) may be accomplished by using a smaller bead size. A 0.1 mm diameter bead or smaller may allow APS reduction to less than 100 nm.

The treatment of the submicron particles with the protic acid may be conducted in the presence of an agitation device, such as a stir bar or ceramic balls. The agitation of the container to passivate the particles with hydrogen may be accomplished with a roller mill (e.g., at 60 rpm for two hours). The container may be a screw top container. After agitating the container for hydrogen passivation (e.g., for two hours), the container may be allowed to stand motionless (e.g., for another two hours). The container may then be opened to release pressure and at least a portion of the liquid phase removed. Optionally, additional protic acid may be added and the hydrogen passivation step repeated. After hydrogen passivation, the container may be opened to release pressure and the liquid portion may be separated from the solids (e.g., by decantation). In the same or different container and under agitation, the hydrogen passivated submicron particles may be treated with the compound for passivation for a sufficient time (e.g., four to six hours) to affect passivation. The liquid phase may thereafter be removed from the solids (e.g., by syringe). The solid passivated submicron particles may be dried by evaporation, optionally at reduced pressure at room temperature. Optionally, evaporation may be achieved under reduced pressure. Preferably, when under reduced pressure, care is taken to provide sufficient heat to the evacuated vessel to avoid freezing of the solvent(s). Preferably, care is taken to avoid sweeping nano particles into the receiving flask when the velocity of the solvent vapors is high.

In an industrial process, solvents may be removed by circulating dry nitrogen gas across heated evaporations plates covered with a slurry of the particles/solvent at near atmospheric pressure. The solvent saturated gas may be passed through a condenser to recover the solvents and restore the unsaturated gas for further recirculation. This process may minimize carryover of nanoparticles into the solvent condenser.

The Group IVA particles may be characterized by a variety of methods. For example, characterization of the passivated particles may be accomplished with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis-mass spectrometry (TGA-MS), and/or molecular fluorescence spectroscopy.

SEM images may be used to measure individual particles and to gain more assurance that particle size measurements truly represent individual particles rather than clusters of crystallites. While SEM instruments also have the capability to perform Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDS), it is also possible with sufficiently small particle sizes that an elemental composition will confirm the presence of carbon and the absence of oxides through observance and absence respectively of their characteristic K-alpha signals. Iron and other metal impurities may be observed and do not interfere with the observance of lighter elements.

Another analytical method that can be used to demonstrate the presence of and identify the composition of monolayers on nanoparticles is the combined hyphenated method of thermogravimetric analysis and mass spectrometry (TGA-MS). With sufficient surface area, the fraction of surface molecules to the mass of the particles may be sufficiently high enough that mass of the monolayer can be detected gravimetrically as it desorbs or disbonds from the particle surfaces when a sample is heated. Excess solvent evolved as the mass is heated will appear near the normal boiling point of that solvent, while solvent molecules that belong to the bonded monolayer will be released at a significantly higher temperature. If the release of the monolayer comprises too small of a fraction of the total mass weight to be seen on a percentage scale of total mass lost, it may still be detected by a mass-spectrometer used to monitor off gases during a TGA experiment. Monitoring the total ion current derived from the major mass fragments of the surface molecules' parent ion is a very sensitive tool to verify composition and the precise temperature at which these molecules are released.

Still another very sensitive test to detect the presence of surface-bound unsaturated or aromatic hydrocarbons is by its fluorescence spectrum. While the measurement of a fluorescence spectrum can be accomplished by more than one method, a reflectance spectrum from a slurry or suspension of Group IVA particles in a non-fluorescing solvent flowing in a HPLC stream through a fluorescence detector can be employed with nanoparticles. By measuring shifts in the irradiation maxima and the resulting fluorescence spectra of the bound monolayer compared with that of the free solvent, the perturbation due to the surface bonding interactions can be assessed.

For nanoparticles less than about 50 nm, the use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) becomes a feasible method to measure the effects of bonding of the surface molecules by observing the resonance of singlet state isotopes that have strong gyromagnetic ratios. Carbon 13, hydrogen, and silicon 29 are all candidates that exhibit reasonable sensitivity toward NMR. Because these nanoparticles are expected to be insoluble in all solvents, a preferred technique to acquire NMR spectra is by the method of cross-polarization-magic angle spinning (CP-MAS) NMR spectrometry, otherwise known as solid NMR. Significant resonance shifts would be expected from bonding interactions with surface molecules compared to the unperturbed or natural resonance positions. These resonance shifts may indicate the predominant mode of bonding between specific atoms of the surface molecules and the surface Group IVA atoms. The presence of any paramagnetic or ferromagnetic impurities in the Group IVA material may interfere with and prevent the acquisition of NMR spectra. Thus, preferably only highly pure, iron-free Group IVA particles of less than 50 nm diameter are candidates for NMR analysis.

3. APPLICATIONS

The Group IVA particles may be used in a variety of applications. The Group IVA particles may be used where spectral shifting due to quantum confinement is desirable, and particle size distributions under 15 nanometers (nm) are required. The Group IVA particles may be used where particle size compatibility with a porous framework is desired, or it is desired to have material properties that resist amalgamation with other metals such as lithium (Li). The Group IVA particles may be used to provide viable commercial products using specific particle size distribution ranges.

Fields of useful applications for the functionalized Group IVA particles include, but are not limited to, rendering solubility of functional nano particles in various solvent systems for the purpose of separation of particle size distributions; to enhance transport properties in biological systems such as blood or across diffusible membranes; to alter quantum effects of nanoparticles and to optimize the properties of electronic films used in solar photovoltaics, luminescence, biosensors, pigments, electromagnetic energy sensitizers and catalysts involving electron transfers.

a. Battery Applications

The functionalized Group IVA particles may be useful in battery applications, particularly in anodes of lithium ion batteries. In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particles may be covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework. The framework including the Group IVA particles may be particularly useful in lithium ion battery applications. The framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The framework may be a 2-dimensional framework or a 3-dimensional framework. A complete framework composite may comprise multiple sheets of frameworks stacked and aligned on top of one another. The sheets may be aligned and stacked in close proximity with one another to provide electron mobility in the perpendicular direction to the plane of the sheets. FIG. 3 depicts one porous framework composite according to the present invention that may serve as an anode in a lithium ion battery application. FIG. 4 depicts a lithium ion battery using a silicon-covalent porous framework anode according to the present invention.

Submicron silicon particles bonded to a porous covalent framework with high charge mobility may provide a high capacity anode in lithium-ion batteries. Silicon is known to form amalgams with lithium having the capacity to attract a greater mass of lithium than any other known element. Anodes with silicon have the capacity to attract more than 10 times the mass of lithium than conventional carbon-based anode composites. Consequently, material scientists and battery manufacturers have attempted to form silicon bearing composites that function as the anode in lithium-ion batteries. The primary hurdle facing these efforts relates the charge/recharge cycle stability of the anode composites. This is because no structural form of bulk silicon (or germanium) can accommodate the spatial requirement imposed by the accumulated lithium and the composites degrade mechanically after the first charge cycle.

Because lithium-ion batteries are usually developed as secondary batteries (rechargeable) they must undergo many charge/recharge cycles (1000 or more) without significant loss of charge capacity. Thus, if silicon is used in lithium-ion battery anodes, the structure of the composite must be capable of accommodating large amounts of lithium (approximately 4 times the volume with a full Li charge compared to the composite with no Li accumulation). Si particles must also be small enough to resist amalgamation by lithium. Si nanowires and nanoporous silicon and quantum dots have all demonstrated the ability to attract lithium without causing mechanical changes to the silicon particles.

A framework that supports silicon particles may allow Li⁺ ions to migrate. The porous framework may accommodate solvents and electrolytes and allow free migration of ions ideally in all directions. The frameworks can be designed with optimum porosity. The reticular pattern with which the structural units are assembled may result in perfectly even porosity throughout the framework, allowing ion flow in all directions with no “hot spots” or areas of restricted flow that contribute to a battery's internal resistance leading to the generation of heat.

Porous electrode composites may allow charge to be conducted from sites where reduction and oxidation occurs to the current collector. The conduction path is bidirectional since the direction of charge and electrolyte flow are reversed when the battery is being recharged as opposed to when the battery is providing electrical power. Frameworks using planar porphyrin structural units have the ability to accommodate electrical charge in its extended pi system and the alignment of the structural units by the reticular assembly provides an efficient path for electrons as demonstrated by charge mobility measurements. While some electrode designs require the inclusion of conductive carbon in the composite, the electrode with conductive frameworks may not.

While many conductive frameworks could be constructed, examples of organic boronic ester frameworks are of particular interest because their syntheses can be accomplished using mild non-toxic reagents and conditions and because they have interesting fire-retardant properties. Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) that incorporate either trisboronic- or tetraboronicester vertices bound by aromatic struts builds layered two-dimensional or three-dimensional frameworks, respectively. Two aromatic precursors, 1,2,4,5-tetrahydroxybenzene and 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene have been described and have been combined with boronic acids, building COFs that have very high electron mobility and remarkably good fire suppression properties. Incorporating Group IVA particles functionalized with these symmetric tetraols provides a means of covalently bonding the Group IVA particles to the COF matrix. Functionalization of benzene passivated Group IVA particles with either of these symmetric tetraols can be accomplished by refluxing the benzene functionalized Group IVA particles suspended with the tetraol in benzene. While benzene can leave the particle surface without decomposition, the tetraol forms a chelate and once bonded to the particle surface will not leave.

While Group IVA particles covalently bonded to a conductive organic framework could make a novel composite for lithium battery anodes, a functionalized Group IVA particle incorporated in layered graphite, stacked carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, activated carbon or other less structured porous carbon or polymer composites could also significantly enhance the properties of those materials toward lithium storage or other properties outlined above. In other words, the incorporation of functionalized Group IVA particles does not necessarily have to be formally bonded into a coherent framework to realize benefits in the composites. In these applications, the choice of dopants that render “n-type” (nitrogen, phosphorous, antimony) and “p-type” (boron) would be chosen to populate the conduction band or depopulate the valence band respectively of these Group IVA semiconductors with electrons. While the n-type configuration would behave more like a conductor, the p-type configuration would be prone to capturing photon energy and converting it to charged particles. Furthermore, incorporation of photo-active semiconductors capable of capturing and transferring photon energy to electrical charge could be useful when combined with porous electrically active materials that bear functional groups capable of producing unstable radicals. These radicals are known to catalyze chemical transformations, particularly the oxidation of stable hydrocarbons and the oxidation of stable metals in low valence states to higher valence states. Such activity could be useful for treatment of chemical waste, water and air purification and the capture of toxic metals such as arsenic, selenium, lead and mercury.

b. Photovoltaic Applications

The functionalized Group IVA particles may be useful in photovoltaic applications. The Group IVA particles may be used to provide a semiconductor film comprised of submicron Group IVA particles dispersed and in communication with an electrically-conductive fluid matrix or liquid crystal. The film may be prepared by making a semiconductor particle suspension, depositing the semiconductor particle suspension on a substrate, and curing the semiconductor particle suspension at a temperature of 200° C. or less to form the semiconductor film. The semiconductor particles may be comprised of elements from the group consisting of B, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, N, P, As, Sb, O, S, Te, Se, F, Cl, Br, I, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Ag, Cu, Au, Zn, Cd, lanthanides, and actinides. The semiconductor particles may be p-type or n-type. The method may be performed completely at room temperature.

The semiconductor films that may be applied in sequence on a substrate, rigid or flexible, may be integral parts of a functioning semiconductor device having been assembled monolithically with no annealing during any part of the manufacturing process. The semiconductor films may be applied as inks printed on the substrate by ink-jet or any known printing process capable of creating uniform films on a substrate surface. Conductive circuitry may also be printed in the same manner as the semiconductor films, all becoming integral parts of the complete electronic device.

For example, in the case where the semiconductor device is a photovoltaic cell, a p-type semiconductor film (abbreviated as “p-film”) may be applied by ink-jet to the substrate with a conductive surface. Upon sufficient curing of the p-film, an n-type semiconductor film (n-film) may be applied directly on the partially cured p-film. After the first two films are sufficiently cured, conductive circuitry may be applied on top of the n-film. The conductive circuitry can be printed through a mask or by such print jet capable of making narrow, wire-like conduction pathways. The conductive circuitry on top may minimize the area that shades incident light on the surface of the semiconductor films. The conductive circuitry on top of the n-film may be connected to the negative terminal (anode), while the conductive surface under the p-film and on the substrate may be connected to the positive terminal (cathode). The cell may then be hermetically sealed with a sunlight-transparent covering, gaskets and cement. A schematic diagram of such a cell is depicted in FIG. 5.

Also disclosed herein is a method of making a photovoltaic cell at room temperature from semiconductor films composed of Group IVA submicron particles. In certain embodiments, photovoltaic activity may be observed in cells made by the methods in this invention using crystalline silicon films having a mean particle size distribution above 1 micron. Yet in other embodiments, higher photovoltaic efficiency may be achieved from films made with nanoparticle size distributions such that quantum confinement becomes an important factor in the absorption of photons and photon-electron transitions. Distinct advantages are gained with the use of nanoparticle films in solar PV collectors, one being the efficiency and breadth of the solar radiation spectrum that can be absorbed and converted to electrical energy using crystalline silicon. For example, solar cells made from bulk silicon wafers are typically 30 thousandths (˜0.7 mm) thick, while some silicon nanoparticle thin films that have equivalent photon absorption capacity need only be less than 100 nm.

Bulk crystalline silicon is inherently an indirect band gap semiconductor, which explains why photon absorption efficiency is low even though the natural band gap for silicon is nearly perfectly centered in the solar spectrum. For absorption and conversion of a photon to an electron hole pair to occur in indirect band gap semiconductors (p-type), the conversion must be accompanied with the production of a phonon (a smaller packet of thermal energy). Not only is some energy lost in each conversion of photon to electron, but these conversions do not readily occur because it is a forbidden transition. Still, forbidden transitions can and do occur, but they happen much less frequently than in direct band-gap semiconductors. Similarly, florescence (resulting in the annihilation of an electron or electron hole pair with the emission of a photon) also is forbidden in indirect band-gap semiconductors and allowed in direct band-gap semiconductors. Consequently, silicon is a poor luminescence semiconductor, but it is capable of preserving energy in the form of an electron hole pair for long enough to allow the charge to migrate to the p-n junction where it meets an electron from the conduction band of the n-semiconductor layer.

Under ideal conditions the maximum theoretical photovoltaic efficiency of bulk crystalline silicon is just over 30%, while in practice the best photovoltaic efficiency in crystalline silicon wafer solar cells is 22-24%. Still, crystalline silicon wafer technology is most commonly used in commercial solar PV panels because their efficiency is far better than amorphous silicon films and the PV efficiency fade over time is very low compared to other solar PV technologies. PV efficiency for silicon nanoparticle films has been measured in the laboratory as high as 40-50% with some expectations that even higher efficiencies are attainable. However, these devices have not yet been commercialized presumably because the cost of commercialization is too high to compete with existing technologies.

While others have used expensive heat processing methods to fuse various elements of the semiconductor materials to form functioning semiconductor devices, disclosed herein is a method of making these devices function through the formation of formal covalent bonds and pi overlapping interactions in liquid crystal and covalent framework structures through low temperature reactions. The overlying benefit from this approach is to lower the cost of manufacturing superior performing devices. This is especially important for solar PV manufacturing where the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) must decline for solar power to approach parity with other sources of electrical energy.

Also disclosed herein is a method of applying passivated Group IVA semiconductor particles suspended with an electrically conductive fluid. The semiconductor particles and the constituents of the liquid crystal or electrically conducting fluid or framework may be suspended in a high-K dielectric solvent to form a liquid ink with the appropriate viscosity suitable for the method of application. For jet printing, viscosities in the range of 10 centipoise (cp) to 30 cp may be suitable, while for gravure printing may require viscosities over 100 cp. High K solvents are used to promote the dispersion of nanoparticles and prevent particle agglomeration. Films may require a period of curing to allow the alignment and or self assembly of the fluid matrix or structural units of the framework and to establish electrical communication with the semiconductor particles. The curing process may involve complete or partial evaporation of one or more components of solvent used in making the inks.

Solvents used in making submicron semiconductor inks may include, but are not limited to, N-methyl pyrrolidinone (NMP), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), tetrahydrofuran (THF), nitromethane, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA), dimethylforamide (DMF), and sulfalone. Many organic-based compounds are available that form columnar discotic liquid crystals. Examples of these include a class of compounds derived from triphenylene-base compounds that align with each other in stacked columns by hydrogen bonding. Similarly, other symmetric and asymmetric polyaromatic hydrocarbons with planar pi systems and ring substituents that participate in their alignment into stack columns may be used for a discotic liquid crystal matrix. Porphyrin based compounds may be used to form stacked arrays that can be classified with liquid crystals, or with appropriate functional groups may form covalent organic frameworks that allow high charge mobility in their frameworks. Some combination of one or more of the above solvents and organic-based liquid crystal or conductive framework structural units may be used for the semiconductor film matrixes.

c. Pollutant Capture

The functionalized Group IVA particles may be useful in the capture of pollutants, and in particular, pollutants from combustion processes. Emission of mercury, for example, from combustion gas sources such as coal-fired and oil-fired boilers has become a major environmental concern. Mercury (Hg) is a potent neurotoxin that can affect human health at very low concentrations. The largest source of mercury emission in the United States is coal-fired electric power plants. Coal-fired power plants account for between one-third and one-half of total mercury emissions in the United States. Mercury is found predominantly in the vapor-phase in coal-fired boiler flue gas. Mercury can also be bound to fly ash in the flue gas.

Mercury and other pollutants can be captured and removed from a flue gas stream by injection of a sorbent into the exhaust stream with subsequent collection in a particulate matter control device such as an electrostatic precipitator or a fabric filter. Adsorptive capture of Hg from flue gas is a complex process that involves many variables. These variables include the temperature and composition of the flue gas, the concentration and speciation of Hg in the exhaust stream, residence time, and the physical and chemical characteristics of the sorbent.

Currently, the most commonly used method for mercury emission reduction is the injection of powdered activated carbon (PAC) into the flue stream of coal-fired and oil-fired plants. However, despite available technologies, there is an ongoing need to provide improved pollution control sorbents and methods for their manufacture.

Aspects of the invention include compositions, methods of manufacture, and systems and methods for removal of heavy metals and other pollutants from gas streams. In particular, the compositions and systems are useful for, but not limited to, the removal of mercury from flue gas streams generated by the combustion of coal. One aspect of the present invention relates to a sorbent comprising a Group IVA functionalized particle as described herein.

In certain embodiments, a method of removing pollutants (e.g., mercury) from a combustion flue gas stream includes injecting into the flue gas stream a sorbent comprising a functionalized Group IVA particle as described herein. The sorbent can be used and maintain functionality under a variety of conditions, including conditions typical of flue gas streams found in combustion processes. In certain embodiments, the sorbent can be provided into a flue gas or process having a temperature of 200° F. to 2100° F., or 400° F. to 1100° F. In certain embodiments, the sorbent can be provided into a flue gas or process having a temperature of 50° F. or greater, 100° F. or greater, 200° F. or greater, 300° F. or greater, 400° F. or greater, 500° F. or greater, 600° F. or greater, 700° F. or greater, 800° F. or greater, 900° F. or greater, 1000° F. or greater, 1100° F. or greater, 1200° F. or greater, 1300° F. or greater, 1400° F. or greater, 1500° F. or greater, 1600° F. or greater, 1700° F. or greater, 1800° F. or greater, 1900° F. or greater, 2000° F. or greater, or 2100° F. or greater. Optionally, the injected sorbent may be collected downstream of the injection point in a solids collection device. Optionally, the injected sorbent can be recycled for repeat use.

d. Other Applications

Other applications for functionalized Group IVA particles include biosensors, thermoelectric films, and other semiconductor devices.

4. EXAMPLES

The foregoing may be better understood by reference to the following examples, which are presented for purposes of illustration and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

Example 1 Toluene Passivated Silicon Particles

In one example, p-type silicon wafers with measured resistivity of 2-4 ohm/cm² were crushed, then ground with mortar and pestle, then passed through a #60 mesh sieve. The powder was further reduced to submicron particles with a ball mill. In 40 gram batches, the submicron silicon powder was added to a 250 mL polypropylene container with 100 mL of muriatic acid and 4-8 ceramic balls (12 mm dia.). The screw-top lid was closed and the container was turned on a rolling mill at 60 rpm for two hours. Pressure buildup in the container caused the container to bulge. In some instances where larger quantities or lower grades of silicon were treated, the container was subject to bursting due to the buildup of H₂ gas. After two hours of agitation on the roller mill, the bottle was allowed to stand for another two hours motionless. The bottle was carefully opened with the release of pressure and the liquid was drawn from the container above the solid in the bottle via syringe. Another 100 mL of fresh muriatic acid was added and the bottle closed and rolled for another 2-hour period followed by a 2-4 hour period of standing in an upright position. The bottle was opened again with release of much less pressure than after the initial acid treatment. The aqueous liquid portion was carefully drawn from the solid as before. The decanted liquid was noticeably clearer than the liquid drawn from the first acid treatment. After thoroughly decanting the aqueous liquid, 100 mL of toluene was added to the solid, the screw-top lid was replaced and the bottle was rolled again for 4-6 hours with the ceramic balls remaining in the container for agitation. After allowing at least 1 hour for settling, the lid was opened with little to no pressure released from the vessel and liquid was drawn away followed by another 100 mL portion of toluene added to the vessel. The vessel was again rolled to agitate the silicon powder in toluene for another 4-6 hours before allowing the mixture to settle and opening the vessel to remove the liquid toluene via syringe. The remaining toluene was removed by evaporation assisted by reduced pressure at room temperature.

Following a similar procedure, other hydrocarbon passivated micron- to nanosized particles can be created using n-type Group IVA wafers, or wafers with higher or lower resistivity or bulk MG Group IVA ingot material. The amounts of material treated can vary depending on the grade of the bulk material and size and burst strength of polypropylene or polyethylene container used.

Example 2 Benzene Passivated Silicon Particles

In another example, following the identical milling procedure describe of Example 1, benzene (C₆H₆) was instead used as the passivating hydrocarbon in place of toluene. Applied similarly, benzene may be replaced in subsequent reactions by other hydrocarbons with more strongly bonding functional groups. Benzene is one of few organic hydrocarbons that will bond reversibly to silicon surfaces. Thus, benzene passivated Group IVA material is a convenient stable intermediate to use for introducing other functional hydrocarbons on to the particle surface. This is one of few forms of Group IVA material in which thermodynamics plays an important role in the surface chemistry as opposed to be being dominated by kinetics.

Example 3 Passivated Silicon Particles

In another example, 325 mesh Si powder was processed by a Netzsch Dynostar mill using 0.4-0.6 mm yttrium-stabilized zirconia beads in benzene. The solids loading of the Si-benzene slurry was 30-40 percent. Particle size distribution (PSD) analysis indicated that the average particle size (APS) was reduced to about 200 nm. Further processing to smaller APS required a change in grinding media to smaller bead size. Changing to 0.1 mm diameter beads or smaller will allow APS reduction to less than 100 nm. Below 100 nm, further APS reduction in benzene becomes difficult due to rapidly increasing viscosity of the slurry. Furthermore, following the APS reduction progress by light-scattering PSDA methods becomes difficult due to particle agglomeration.

Removal of benzene from submicron particles was accomplished by evaporation of benzene under reduced pressure. Care must be taken to provide heat to the vessel with the slurry to avoid freezing of the benzene. A 20 mm glass tube mated between the flask containing the Si/benzene slurry and a receiving flask for the solvent condensate by 24/40 ground glass joints allowed the solvent to be removed from the nano-silicon/benzene slurry. While pressure in the joined flasks was briefly, but repeatedly reduced via vacuum, care was taken not to apply too much dynamic vacuum as solvent vapors easily sweep nano particles into the receiving flask when the velocity of those vapors is high.

On a small laboratory scale, this method is adequate for isolation of the Group IVA particles from solvent slurries. In an industrial process, it may be more efficient to remove solvents by circulating dry nitrogen gas across heated evaporations plates covered with the slurry at near atmospheric pressure. The solvent saturated gas may be passed through a condenser to recover the solvents and restore the unsaturated gas for further recirculation. This process may minimize carryover of nanoparticles into the solvent condenser.

Characterization of the benzene passivated Si particles includes SEM, TGA-MS, and molecular fluorescence spectroscopy. SEM images were used to measure individual particles and to gain more assurance that particle size measurements truly represent individual particles rather than clusters of crystallites. While SEM instruments also have the capability to perform Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDS), it is also possible with sufficiently small particle sizes that an elemental composition will confirm the presence of carbon and the absence of oxides through observance and absence respectively of their characteristic K-alpha signals. FIG. 6 is an EDS spectrum showing resolved K-alpha signals that include Si, O, and C. Iron and other metal impurities could also be observed and do not interfere with the observance of lighter elements.

Average Particle Size (APS):

APS as determined by a Microtrac particle size was between 200 and 300 nm. Initial SEM images were recorded in addition to EDXA scans. While the initial SEM images were inadequate to resolve the particle size of the analyzed sample, the EDXA scan revealed good data that confirms the presence of hydrocarbon and minor oxidation (See FIGS. 8 and 7 respectively). The sample was mounted on an aluminum stub, so the signal in the position of Al K-alpha seen in the EDXA scan is most likely a contribution of the Al mounting stub.

The images in FIG. 8 are somewhat out of focus and not sufficiently resolved to enable a good APS to be determined; however, it is plain to see from the image in FIG. 8 that the APS is well below submicron range.

Identification of Surface Organics:

One qualitative test for surface organics is the measurement of a Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectrum. FTIR measures modes of molecular vibrations due to stretching and bending frequencies of molecular bonds. While it is possible in FIG. 9 to see evidence of the FTIR fingerprint left behind by benzene, there are no significant shifts in the C—H stretching frequencies due to perturbations from their bonding interactions to the Si surfaces. C—C bending patterns will have to be examined in more detail. This is where perturbations (wave number shifts) will be most prominent if those interactions are indeed strong enough to shift bands beyond spectral resolution limits (±4 cm⁻¹).

Further evidence that benzene is bound to the particle surfaces with bonding interactions that appear stronger than hydrogen bonding, but not as well defined as would be expected from a discrete monolayer, is shown in TGA scans. FIGS. 10a and 10b are TGA scans run at heating rates of 30 degrees C./s and 10 degrees C./s respectively. The initial scan at 30 degrees C./s was done to quickly observe the thermal profile up to 500° C. (932° F.). In this scenario, the compound is stable to oxidation up to 500° C. (932° F.) and also notable is the fact that it appears to lose mass gradually. The solvent hangs on well past its boiling point. The slower scan rate in FIG. 10b demonstrates that while benzene is continuously evolved from the sample, throughout the temperature range, the material will survive up to 250° C. for several minutes before beginning to oxidize at this slower scan rate. For this reason, using this material in a fixed (packed) bed reactor held at a sustained temperature may not survive beyond 250° C. (482° F.). However, the dynamic desorption of surface bound benzene does not occur instantly and could protect the Si surface from oxidation briefly at higher temperatures. The mass loss accounts for only 0.02% of the total mass before oxidation begins to occur.

Example 4 Toluene Passivated Silicon Particles

Si particles processed in benzene solvent by milling 325 mesh intrinsic Si (99.99%, Alpha Aesar) with 0.4-0.6 mm yttrium-stabilized beads until reaching about 300 nm apparent APS were passivated by stirring in toluene and heating to reflux under inert atmospheres. To 20 g of the dried particles in a 200 mL round bottom flask was added 50 mL of toluene freshly distilled from sodium. The same procedure was followed with particles made from the previous stock, but further milled with 0.1 mm beads to an apparent APS less than 200 nm. The true APS estimated from SEM images was less than 100 nm. In both cases, the particles were refluxed for 1-2 hours in toluene blanketed under 1 atmosphere of purified nitrogen.

With toluene passivated nc-Si, a sharper decline of the mass loss is expected in the TGA with greater sustained stability at higher temperatures. This would be expected for a passivating layer characterized by stronger, more defined bonding interactions to localized sites. Due to toluene's asymmetry, stronger Si—C bonding interactions will be formed to the ring carbon bound to methyl compared with other C—H ring carbon-silicon interactions. Greater evidence of C—C bond vibrations will also be manifest in the IR spectrum band shifts.

It is understood that the foregoing detailed description and accompanying examples are merely illustrative and are not to be taken as limitations upon the scope of the invention, which is defined solely by the appended claims and their equivalents.

Various changes and modifications to the disclosed embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications, including without limitation those relating to the chemical structures, substituents, derivatives, intermediates, syntheses, compositions, formulations, or methods of use of the invention, may be made without departing from the spirit and scope thereof. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A Group IVA particle passivated by a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from metallurgical grade silicon, silicon wafer, or kerf from silicon wafer manufacturing; wherein the non-dielectric layer is derived from a compound selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkenes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrroles, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes.
 2. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the non-dielectric layer is derived from a compound selected from the group consisting of toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde.
 3. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the non-dielectric layer possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.
 4. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the Group IVA particle is stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.
 5. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the particle is 25 microns in size or less.
 6. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the particle is 1 micron in size or less.
 7. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the particle is 0.15 micron in size or less.
 8. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the particle size is 0.05-0.15 micron.
 9. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework.
 10. The Group IVA particle of claim 9, wherein the porous covalent framework is a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework.
 11. The Group IVA particle of claim 9, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 2-dimensional framework.
 12. The Group IVA particle of claim 9, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 3-dimensional framework.
 13. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises an n-type dopant.
 14. The Group IVA particle of claim 13, wherein the n-type dopant comprises nitrogen, phosphorous, or arsenic.
 15. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises a p-type dopant.
 16. The Group IVA particle of claim 15, wherein the p-type dopant comprises boron or aluminum.
 17. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.
 18. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the silicon wafer is a p-type silicon wafer.
 19. The Group IVA particle of claim 18, wherein the p-type silicon wafer has a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm².
 20. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the silicon wafer is an n-type silicon wafer.
 21. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, prepared by a process comprising the steps of: a) treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and b) treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a Group IVA particle passivated with a non-dielectric layer over at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.
 22. The Group IVA particle of claim 21, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of an organic compound, a fullerene, and an organometallic compound.
 23. The Group IVA particle of claim 21, wherein the Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.
 24. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, prepared by a process comprising the steps of: a) treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; b) treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and c) treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle stable to oxidation in air at room temperature. 